The Bruce B. Lawrence Reader: Islam beyond Borders by Bruce B. Lawrence
Edited and with an introduction by Ali Altaf
Mian
Duke University Press, 2021 (462 pages).
Reviewed by Dr Mansur Ali, Senior Lecturer in
Islamic Studies, Cardiff University (AliMM1@cardiff.ac.uk)
Published in Muslim World Book Review 43(3), pp. 31-37.
In the name of God, Full of Compassion, Ever Compassionate
(ch. 21, p. 368).
The Bruce B. Lawrence Reader is a window into
the mind of a master scholar (‘allamah) who has spent a lifetime
learning and teaching that Islam has much to offer to the world if understood
properly. Starting off with Islam as his blank canvas, guided by Shaykh
Nizamuddin Awliya’ (d. 1325) at his side, with Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) and
Marshall Hodgson (d. 1968) as his methodological architects and Maqbul Fida
Husain (d. 2011) as his sculptor, Bruce Lawrence embarks on a mission ‘to stage
an argument for the political purchase and analytical value of compassionate,
engaged scholarship on Islam and Muslims.’ Ali Altaf Mian, the editor, writes
that ‘Lawrence’s scholarship is one that crosses territorial and disciplinary
boundaries to account for Islam’s differences and multiplicity.’ The editor Ali
Mian is one of the last students of Lawrence. It is he who has put this Reader
together, arranging the materials not chronologically but loosely thematically.
He should be commended for this service to knowledge. Ali Mian arranges the 24 essays
around 6 themes. Each theme follows a methodological approach in the study of
religion: theorising, revaluing, translating, deconstructing, networking and
reflecting. The 25th essay is an interview by the editor with Lawrence
from 2018 evoking the latter’s stay at Aligarh Muslim University.
The afterward is written by a friend and
colleague Yasmin Saika who only has the highest praise for Lawrence. What
stands out in reading the 25 essays in this book is that it feels like Lawrence
oscillates between a scholar of Islam and an Islamic scholar (chapter 12 feels
like the type of stuff one would learn in a khanqa at the feet of a Sufi
master); just like the afterward which oscillates between a biographical
reflection and a classical Muslim hagiography (tadhkira). Divine
intervention led the author of the afterward to the door of Lawrence, ‘At that
moment it became clear to me that the voice of the elderly man I had heard in
India was the voice of Nizamuddin Awliya’ (p. 434).’ The cover has a beautiful
illustration from Lawrence’s friend, the metaphysical secularist, MF Husain’s 2008
painting (ch. 23). The editor has a general introduction in the beginning and
then an introductory summary of each section highlighted by using a darker
shade of paper. Below are summaries of selected chapters from the Reader
sprinkled throughout with my reflections.
Part 1: Theorising Islam (p. 25) helps
us to break away from the popular understanding of Islam that has haunted the
public psyche: one that is strewn with bullets and strained with blood. One where
the body of the Muslim woman is a site of contestation. In contrast, Lawrence
asks us to think of Islam differently. He cautions readers against reducing
Islam to a single entity, proposes a polysemic view of Islam and to think about
Islam in its broadest sense as a civilization project. In chapter 1: Introduction
to Shattering the Myth (p. 29), Lawrence draws our attention to the fact
that Islam is not inherently violent (this is repeated in numerous chapters
including chapter 16) and that the larger role for Islam in the world is one of
hope. In the section of many faces of Islam (p. 40) he posits that Islam is not
only a religion, but also politics and a worldview. He argues that it is the
experience of Muslim women that calls for a more nuanced approach to Islam and
global change (see also ch. 15 Shah Bano case for a detailed study on a case
related to Muslim women, and ch. 24 for a ‘shattering’ view of some Muslim
women vis-a-vis reflection of the divine).
Part 2: Revaluing
Muslim Comparativists (p. 100). Revaluing and comparisons are two methodological
devices used in the study of religion. They help to shed light on ‘self,
society and cosmos.’ In this section, Lawrence conducts a ‘metanalysis’ of four
Muslim scholars: Al-Biruni (d. 1048), Al-Shahrastani (d. 1153), Ibn Khaldun and
Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (d. 1898). In chapter 5: Al-Biruni: Against the Grain
(p. 103), Lawrence discusses al-Biruni, a polymath scientist famous for his
history of India. Al-Biruni wrote on disparate topics like geology, exotheology,
geography and pharmacology. Chapter 6: Shahrastani on Indian Idol Worship
(p. 113) addresses the theme of Indian religion. Here Lawrence revalues a more
sympathetic voice on Indian religions. Whilst al-Biruni fell into the twin
pitfall of intellectual and political imperialism, Lawrence believes that al-Shahrastani
is a gentle admiring foe. In his book on heresiology, al-Milal wa-l-Nihal,
al-Shahrastani viewed certain Hindu sects (Vaisnavas and Saivas) through the
lens of the Qur’anic ‘Sabians’, thus attributing to them the designation of ahl
al-kitab. Lawrence argues that one can only arrive at this reading through
a detailed study of al-Shahrastani’s understanding of the Sabians and then
juxtaposing this with his view on Hinduism in the section of ara’ al-hind.
This chapter (and the next) is a remarkable display of Lawrence’s attention to
details and his ability to break down complex ideas into beautifully crafted
prose.
Chapter 7: Introduction
to Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah (p. 124). The Muqaddimah remains Ibn
Khaldun's juridically inspired legacy and linguistically channelled genius.
With the verve of a wordsmith and the eye of a forensic analyst, Lawrence lays
bare for us the analytical purchase of the full title of the Muqaddimah,
a simultaneous play on grammar, history and tradition (p.133). For Lawrence,
Ibn Khaldun's uniqueness lies in his simultaneously being a jurist as well as a
litterateur for whom attention to words, both denotation and connotation, are
paramount. His novelty lies in linguistics, to use old terms in new ways and to
shed light on words that may reveal deeper layers of reflection. For Lawrence,
it is ‘asabiyya, or the collective will, a peculiar type of ijma
that permeates the entire Muqaddimah. Harking to the modern period, Lawrence
focuses on another educator and thinker, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (ch. 8, p. 142).
The focus of this article is to show that Khan was not antithetical to Sufism and
his co-religionists can find in him a worthy paradigm to emulate. Lawrence makes
this argument through a quantitative and qualitative study of the writings of
Khan pre-1870 especially his zealous favouring of Naqshbandi masters from his
own family lineage. It was surprising to read that a modernist like Khan vehemently
defended a controversial concept such tasawwur e shaykh (visualising the
Sufi master) using rational arguments.
Part 3 Translating
Sufism (p. 161). All translations are acts of interpretation. Translations
take up many forms be they translations of dicta from one language to another
or translating meaning and culture from one civilisation to another. In this
part, Lawrence masterfully translates for us the meaning and essence of
institutional Sufism. In chapter 9: Can Sufi Texts be Translated? (p. 165),
starting with the idea that an act of translation is closer to speech than
writing, Lawrence wrestles with how best to translate Sufi poetry from one
hybrid language (Indo-Persian) to another (American English). Should a
translation be a surrogate for the source language or depend heavily (i.e., be contingent)
on it? Can a coeval translation ever be achieved? Through a demonstration of
different iterations of his translation of Nizamuddin Awliya’s Morals of the
Heart, Lawrence affirms that it is possible, but not without a linguistic
fight. Related to this is another type of translating, one that does not
require translating from a source language to a target language but translating
the difference between a performative activity and an introspection. In ‘Allah
Remembered’ (ch. 12, p. 218), Lawrence raises the problem of translating a
single word, ‘dhikr’. Is it an invocation or is it a remembrance? Is dhikr
part of an inventory of activities, or is it an intense inward-looking
introspection? It should be noted that this difference of understanding of the
word ‘dhikr’ also plays out in Islamic law (Qur’an, 62:9). Should the Friday
sermon be delivered in Arabic because it is an invocation, or should it be
given in the target language of the audience because it is a reminder?
If all
translations are acts of interpretation, how do we interpret the pendulum swing
of the ‘rise and decline’ of institutional Sufism? In chapter 10: What is a Sufi
order? (p. 176), Lawrence and his co-author debunk the orientalist ‘golden
age syndrome’ in general and Trimingham’s Protestant-inspired tripartite
history (ancient-medieval-modern) of the ‘rise and decline of Sufism’ in
particular. For them, it is not so much ‘rise and decline’ but an ongoing
tension and paradox between utopia and renewal (tajdid). By using the
history of the Chishti order as a case study, the authors draw up a
five-division historical category based on faithfulness to Chishti norms and
values and not on greatness and decline. In similar vein, chapter 11: Sufism
and Neo-Sufism (p. 191) is a broad-brush history of Sufism from the 19th
to the 21st century. The 19th century has been described
as the century of African Sufism, the 20th as the century of Asian Sufism
and the 21st as the century of Euro-American Sufism. Both 19th and
20th century Sufis were engrossed in opposition and resistance to colonialism.
This debunks the destructive dichotomy of ‘good Muslim/bad Muslim’ with the
former being identified with those who are politically inactive, especially Sufism.
The 21st century ushers in the problem of democratization of
knowledge and the commercialisation of spirituality and Sufi paraphernalia. It
is also the era where Sufism acutely transcends Islam (through the works of the
likes Inayat Khan), giving the impression that Sufism is all about feeling good
and having a wonderful experience. For this reason, some scholars are now
making a distinction between Sufism and tasawwuf, the latter including
within it the entire gamut of Sufi practices including self-imposed mujahada
(hardship).
Part 4. Deconstructing religious modernity
(p. 229). Deconstruction as a heuristic device helps to break down complex
ideas into small segments to pursue microanalysis. This in return leads to a
synthesis of ideas to paint a more nuanced and accurate picture of reality. In
this section, the chapters are threaded together as a way to challenge the
cliché that Islam is a religion of terror. The first three chapters of the
section deal with an accurate analysis of why ‘extremism’ exists in Islam, the
fourth chapter deals with how Muslims are on the receiving end of extremism. The
crux of chapter 13: Fundamentalism as a Religious Ideology in Multiple Contexts
(p. 233) is that fundamentalism is an ideology which conjoins truth with
meaning. It is modern phenomenon borne out of tensions created by the modern
world, and especially the modern nation state.
It has historical antecedents but no ideological precursor. It is
religious nevertheless clearly because it borrows from the resources of
scripture and religious ideas. This is what distinguishes fundamentalism from
other separatist movements. Chapter 15 (p. 262) on Osama bin Laden hones in on
this further. Bin Laden is a modernist in the sense that his mission mimics
those of secular separatist movements like the Red Brigades and ultra-left
groups that practiced terrorism in Europe in the 1970s, but with an Islamic
flare. In this sense Bin Laden is a counterterrorist, and his mission can only
be understood against the backdrop of American imperialism and foreign policies.
The Shah Bano (d. 1992) case, on the other hand (ch. 14, p. 255). highlights
the precarious nature of living as a Muslim minority and having parallel legal
systems especially when it is applied ad hoc. It also throws light on identity
politics, raising the question who has the right to speak on behalf of the
Muslim community and also, what is the meaning of subjectivity as a Muslim
(woman).
In chapter 16: Muslim Engagement with Violence
(p. 274), Lawrence traces the genealogy of violence in Islam. He poses several
pertinent questions: Do we begin with 9/11 or 611? Is violence waged by an Islamic
empire or nation always an expression of jihad or religious violence? Is
warfare, when declared by a Muslim ruler, always and everywhere a reflex of
Islamic norms and values? Starting with 611, Lawrence draws upon the sirah
of the Prophet. There he demonstrates that Muslims were on the receiving end of
violence. It was only in the latter 10 years of his ministry that Muhammad used
violence as a survival strategy. Though the Prophet had forsaken violence, he
did not embrace it (p. 279). For Lawrence, Jihad as a doctrine of military
warfare was only fully realised as a reaction to the Crusaders. Jihad was a
product of the rise of Islam and not its cause (p. 282). In the modern period,
nearly all Islamic violence was a result of European meddling, first in the
form of revival, then reform and then fundamentalism. ‘All these revivalist movements
were violent, yet they followed a pattern of responsive violence’ (p. 294).
Lawrence argues that while on the face of it Bin Laden's mission seems to mimic
611 (Islam being an axis of hope), Bin Laden's hope is deferred since it cannot
be achieved in this world. This is where his message separates from the
Prophet’s teaching. And it is Lawrence plea to the majority of Muslims to
prepare for an eventuality beyond the diatribe of apocalyptic doomsayers.
Part 5 Networking Muslim Citizenship (p.
305). The fifth methodology for the study of Islam used by Lawrence is networking.
The ummah is a network of disparate beings with their different beliefs
and practices, and yet all are joined through the ummatic node. Lawrence advocates
a kaleidoscopic approach where polyvalence is celebrated and prejudice is
shunned. In chapter 18: W.D. Muhammad : The Qur’an as a Guide to Racial Equality
(p. 327), Lawrence posits that W.D. Muhammad’s (WDM) mission was to lead his
community from a separatist black movement to true ‘al-Islam’. In this WDM has
the double challenge of plugging into (i.e., networking) a bigger culture (ummah)
whilst maintaining his own community’s indigenous identities (as blacks) on the
one hand, and to educate wider communities of the perils of racism on the
other. For WDM, emancipation can only happen when true Islam and the Qur’an are
properly understood. In a brilliant hermeneutical move, WDM relates the rabb
al-‘alamin in the opening chapter with knowledge (‘ilm due to the
same root). Thus, Allah is the ‘Lord of Systems of Knowledge’. It is this
system of knowledge drafted in the cosmic book (i.e., the God created world)
that can lead Black Americans to salvation, as it could have led black slaves
to emancipation (through learning to navigate the skies) even though they could
not read. After all wasn't the Prophet an ummi?
Chapter 20: AIDS Victims and Sick Women:
Qur’an as Prescriptions for Mercy (p. 345) discusses another type of
networking, one that involves horizontal, vertical and electronic networking. ta’widh
or amulets have been used by Muslim healers from the beginning of Islam to ward
off evil presence or cure ailments. The ta’widh, tied on the neck, is a
petition and communication with God to cure the patient. In the age of the Internet
and networked computers, cyberspace is not only used as a tool for information,
but also a network through the electronic veins of which divine healings are transmitted
from healer to patient. In the case of this chapter, they flow from an Indonesian
Sufi master to women afflicted with the AIDS virus.
Part 6: Reflecting the Divine Other in Words
and Images (p. 351). Reflecting as a methodological tool sits at the
heart of Islam. What is Islam if not reflection (tadabbur, tafakkur,
fiqh, dhikr, ‘ilm, ‘aql)? In chapter 21: Approximating
Saj’ in English Rendition of the Qur’an (p. 351), Lawrence raises an
interesting point. He argues that Muslim translators are no better than
non-Muslim translators in expressing the lyrical prose of the Qur’an. Lawrence
shows high regard for Shawkat Toorawa whom he calls, ‘a superb linguist with a
musical ear.’ For Lawrence, Toorawa's rendition of the basmala as ‘In
the name of God, Full of Compassion,
Ever Compassionate' not only captures the meaning of the verse accurately, but
also captures the mood. Rahman and Rahim here are being
translated not as derived nouns (ism mushtaq), but qualifying adjectives
(sifa) for God, One who not only is full of compassion, but whose
compassion is marked by an unending reflex to project compassion.
This Reader is only the tip of the iceberg of
Lawrence’s intellectual oeuvre. The Reader closes with an annotated
bibliography of Lawrence’s writing spanning half a century of scholarship on
polar opposite topics such as Sufism and terrorism to controversial public
figures like Osama bin Laden and Maqbul Fida Husain. What is missing from his
oeuvre is any serious scholarship on Hadith. I would invite the author to also address
this area in the future. It was a joy to read this edited collection and I
would recommend it to any serious student of Islam.
